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The focus is on having students learn how to summarize, generate good questions, think about what they are doing, use prior knowledge, imagine, elaborate on their understanding of a passage, paraphrase, cue in to when a strategy is appropriate, and develop a set of criteria to determine whether or not a strategy is working.

Combined direct instruction-strategy approach. This method involves a combination of both approaches. However, the teacher does not use direct instruction and then strategy teaching or vice versa. Both are integrated so that direct instruction is used to provide strategies, and students are exposed to a range of material, from sound-symbol relationships to critical thinking about what has been read.

Minimal intervention approach. This approach involves a narrow range of instruction. There may be a lot of drill or practice, students working in insolation with workbooks, social skills training, etc.

What Did the Results Show?

Swanson and Hoskyn concluded from their analysis of all the data that a combined direct instruction-strategy approach produced the greatest results. In discussing this conclusion they made a number of points.

1. Focussing on isolated skills or knowledge is not appropriate for learning disabled children or adults. Teachers should not focus on sound-symbol relationships, word recognition skills, vocabulary, etc.
   
   
2. However, these skills or knowledge should not be omitted. They should be taught within a larger, meaningful, and strategic context. In other words a student does not need a specific kind of information in order to do better. Students need a range of information skills and strategies. Students can operate on many levels at the same time. That is, while they are learning how to sound out words, they can also critically react to whether what they are reading makes sense, or learn how to find an answer to a question.
   
   
3. Learning disabled students do not make equal gains in all subject areas. In the studies analysed, the greases gains were made in reading comprehension.
   
   
4. All teaching techniques do not work equally well. This is why a teacher (or instructor) must have a range of strategies or teaching techniques. If one does not work, then the teacher must be ready to try others. One reason why all teaching techniques do not work equally well is that there are different kinds of learning disabilities. Some students may have difficulty connecting information presented visually. Some may have difficulty putting together information presented orally. Still others may have problem' with particular tasks such as sequencing.
   
   
5. The length of instruction is important. The authors suggested that the number of instructional sessions be more than ten.
   
   
6. The place where the instruction occurs is important. Children performed better if they received special help outside the classroom.
   
   
7. Work with learners in a small group situation was most effective.

General Implications

A big question regarding learning disabled children or adults is what to do with them. A learning disability is not a disease that is awaiting a cure. It is a disability or difficulty in learning. For this reason, any solution must result in setting up conditions so that those who have a learning disability can learn best. This means providing the kind of instruction which best helps them learn. The Swanson and Hoskyn article provides us with some help in this regard. Students with learning disabilities need instruction. They need direction instruction. They need instruction in strategy use. The fourth method identified in this study did not have any significant effect on the students' learning. Unfortunately, teachers and instructors often have learning disabled students do this method. That is, they may leave these students on their own a lot because they do not know what else to do. Such teachers may be easily influenced by the hard sell of a salesperson of a gimmick or fad. An educator once said with respect to choosing instructional material/ programs for learning disabled students, "If the solution has a strange sounding name, treat it very slowly and carefully." Teachers and instructors should also be cautious of claims for certain computer programs which focus on students interacting with a machine for drill and practice on lower-level knowledge. This is the opposite of a direct instruction-strategy approach. It does not provide for the kind of learning and support that can occur in a small group situation. There is no magic pill or cure for learning disabilities. The way to help those with a learning disability is to provide the best instruction possible under the best of conditions.

Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (1998). Experimental Intervention Research on Students with Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis of Treatment Outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 277-321.