In her 8–month study of five community–based literacy programs, Campbell (1996) explored participatory literacy practices with a specific focus on power relationships. Based on the work of Fingeret and Jurmo (1989), Campbell defined participatory literacy programs as those which "share the power equally among learners and staff" (p.1). She found that "identity politics play a pivotal role in the transformation or reproduction of power relationships between and among literacy workers and students" (p. 127). In other words, the role of a student (as perceived by both students and staff) at times became a barrier to full participation in the decision–making process of the programs, despite the programs' efforts and desires to subscribe to a participatory approach.

Drawing from the same data, Campbell (2001) focused on the actual participatory literacy practices of the literacy staff. She found that two of the three literacy workers, whose role was to support the learners and not instruct them, placed a greater emphasis on "doing" rather than "being". All three staff members experienced difficulty implementing a "bottom–up" approach to encourage and allow student decision-making: they were uncomfortable with the power shift; they were uncertain about their evolving role from instructor to "therapist"; and they recognized that students were not comfortable listening to the personal stories or narratives of others. Campbell also found that students were willing to take on leadership roles but needed more support from the literacy staff.

Employment Preparation Programs

Although programs address literacy issues related to employment, very few studies discussed literacy programs that focused only on employment and, conversely, very few studies looked at employment preparation programs that included a literacy component. St. Clair (2001) noted "program administrators and government funders considered the combination of basic skills along with trade preparation unusual in Canada" (p. 132). This finding underscores the uniqueness of the employment preparation program that is the focus of this study, particularly the job placement component, in which students enhance their learning outside the program in a supported job placement.