Martin (1999) proposed that literacy programs incorporate a continuum of models, which could meet the different employment needs of students. Although he has modeled the creation of a continuum of programs based on United States welfare reform, his ideas could be easily translated to Canadian and Ontario programs. Nearly half of the literacy students who enrolled in Canadian programs were on some form of social assistance (Long & Middleton, 2001). A continuum of program models that matched students based on their employment needs would include the following: 1) academic programs, such as GED programs, and competency–based programs; 2) literacy integrated with soft skills, such as job readiness, and family literacy; 3) literacy integrated with occupational skills, such as machine training and Personal Support Worker; and 4) situated context and cognition, which could be geared to workplace programs.

Each of the above studies supports an integrated model of literacy skills with employment skills. Imel (1998) pushes the idea further and states: "Increasingly, evidence demonstrates that the emphasis on just getting people into employment will not result in employment for self–sufficiency" (p. 2). A synthesis of research on welfare–to–work programs (Strawn, 1997 in Imel) revealed that neither programs emphasizing job–search strategies nor those focusing on adult education alone had long–term effectiveness in increasing participants' earnings and job tenure. Instead, stated Imel, "the most effective welfare–to–work programs share a balanced approach that mixes job search, education, job training, and paid and unpaid work experience"(p. 2). The employment preparation program follows such a model. This study will be an opportunity to explore some of the issues and tensions that may arise in such an integrated approach.

IMPACT OF LITERACY PROGRAMS

The impacts of literacy programs, in relation to both gains in employment and the four broad areas of literacy introduced in the previous chapter—skills, tasks, practices, and critical reflection—will be briefly discussed. The literacy definition will be used to highlight impacts on skills and tasks, which are usually measured using tests; practices or the active use of literacy in real-life (outside the school setting); and critical reflection or the use of literacy to affect personal and/or social change.

Based on the literature, improvements in literacy skill development are minimal. Although participation in a program has a positive influence on continuing education, and students perceive an improvement in their skills, test measures indicate little or no change in students' literacy skills (Beder, 1999; Smith & Sheehan–Holt, 1999, Brooks, Davies, Duckett, Hutchison, Kendall, & Wilkin, 2000). In one example, Brooks et al. (2000) found "undramatic but worthwhile" progress in reading and writing skills (the length of the text and hand–writing improved but there was not a reduction in errors and complexity). They also found that regular attendance, qualified tutors, and tutors with classroom help are factors associated with higher reading scores.