His findings suggested six broad lifestyle classifications of noncompleters: Entrepreneurs, Superiors, Regulars, Suppliants, Marginals and Underclass. His classifications differentiated among noncompleters on the basis of both demographic characteristics and attitudinal dispositions. Essentially, the classifications were based on "means of financial support” and "social behaviour". Five of the groups demonstrated socially acceptable behaviour. The Entrepreneurs were owners of private businesses. The Superiors were managers of businesses or organizations. The Regulars were employed skilled and semi-skilled workers. The Suppliants received indirect means of financial support (e.g. from parents, spouse, siblings, unemployment compensation). The Marginals were recipients of public assistance. The Underclass shared means of financial support with three of the above groups but differed in that they exhibited a high level of antisocial behaviour Gail terms, prolonged substance abuse, etc.). Each category was described in terms of several demographic variables.

As a result of his findings he urged practitioners to focus resources on one or two lifestyle groups with similar characteristics rather than attempting to serve the entire range of the undereducated population. In this way situation-specific programs could be designed to meet similar learning needs. Consideration of typologies could also help eliminate contradictory and/or inconclusive research findings.

Hayes and Valentine (1989) in their study of the functional literacy needs of low-literate ABE students concluded that "the provision of functional literacy instruction is a complex task ... It is essential to recognize differences in types of literacy needs and types of learners" (p. 10). They discovered that students learned most of what they needed least and least about what they needed most. A potential explanation for this finding was the mismatch between instructors' perceptions of the needs of the learners and the expressed needs of learners. The authors strongly urged continuous communication with learners.