).In their role as primary caregivers, women— particularly single mothers—face a number of financial barriers that, without adequate financial-
support mechanisms, can prevent them from continuing with their apprenticeship training (Madsen, 1999; O’Hara and Evers, 1996). Current restrictions associated with Employment Insurance legislation may have created additional
barriers for women who want to upgrade their education, particularly if they are single mothers or receiving social assistance (Grzetic, 1998). Some commentators, for example, have identified features of the EI program that may have an impact on women in economically vulnerable situations. These features include cutbacks to community-based training programs, eligibility regulations concerning minimum number of work hours, the length of time needed to become assessed and rated for EI-eligible training, and potential disqualification from social assistance of people receiving EI or training on a full-time basis ().
Key informants and focus groups identified the lack of funding for apprenticeship and preparatory
training within First Nations as a barrier (
). The cost of training, including tuition fees, textbooks and materials, and travel and living costs, present key barriers to participating in the technical training of an apprenticeship. The cost of relocation, in both human and financial terms, is perhaps the biggest cost for Aboriginal people who must move to pursue an apprenticeship. Having to relocate to pursue apprenticeships or technical training represents tremendous personal and financial hardship, prompting one interviewee
to underline the importance of flexible delivery of training, and flexibility in the hours and breadth of experience required in apprenticeship
regulations ().
These barriers were identified by key informants and focus groups, as well as reflected widely in research literature (CLFDB, 1995; CLFDB, 1999; Cook Consulting, 2001; National Aboriginal Achievement Foundation, 2002; ). These sources of research also confirmed that the cost barrier was more prevalent for Aboriginal people in northern regions of Canada.
Many of the barriers encountered by members of visible-minority groups are tied to persistent economic and social disadvantages that have limited the development of young people from these groups within the apprenticeship and trades system. A significant number of members of visible-minority groups may have low levels of education, literacy problems, and limited familiarity
with the trades (CLFDB, 1995; Gordon, 2002; ). While these problems are familiar as generic barriers to apprenticeship (they are widely applicable to many apprentices irrespective
of their background), these barriers are, in the case of visible-minority groups, strongly tied to persistent economic and social disadvantages that generally affect particular visible-minority communities as a whole ().
Systemic poverty and social marginalization have serious consequences for the development of young people from these communities. A historical
lack of access to educational, informational and financial resources has a significant impact on learning and employment opportunities (). The absence of supports, therefore, goes hand in hand with high dropout rates, low literacy levels, a lack of important skills (mathematics most importantly), and high unemployment (). These persistent patterns may affect large parts of whole communities, and may also have attendant repercussions on the self-confidence and optimism of individuals from visible-minority groups, particularly youth. In turn, these repercussions have an impact on access to apprenticeship and training.
Unattended, this state of affairs risks becoming worse. While youth literacy and basic skills show little sign of improvement in some communities, the educational and skill requirements for certain trades have become increasingly complex, particularly
in emerging sectors and professions ().
The high incidence of poverty within certain immigrant communities poses numerous problems
for members of these communities who seek to access or complete apprenticeships (Jothen, 2002; ). As with other individuals from low-income groups, a lack of funds creates other barriers. Poverty may lead to lower educational
outcomes, including a lack of basic literacy skills, an inability to pay program costs for apprenticeship, purchase tools and equipment, and pay for transportation and other resources required in job searches. For recent immigrants with dependents, the option of remaining in “survival” jobs may often be far more feasible than leaving employment to undertake block training ().