In this study the low–income families appeared to recognize that they were set apart from the middle class, yet struggled to fit in. Perhaps, this recognition of difference placed greater pressure on them to conform and led them to seek highly visible signs of the middle class. Some of the families spent much of their disposable income on middle class consumer goods to possiblyhem identify with the middle class world. For example, their children, even in the primary grades, wore the same costly designer label clothes as the middle class students. Although the parents consistently stated they had a strong commitment to learning, the education of their children was undoubtedly impacted by this spending pattern.

Identity formation for children is also a process that is learned and constantly manipulated throughout life depending on circumstances and people with whom the child interacts. The children in this study began to form their identity by imitating models from their interaction with others in their home, school and community. The family serves as the initial agent of socialization helping children to adopt certain attitudes and behaviours that will become part of their identity. Later, others in the community, such as school staff and their friends, have an important influence on them.

Literacy practices grow from personal identities that exist within a given cultural framework. As a result of social interaction processes, the individual acquires an identity and internalizes it. The present study has revealed how not only culture and literacy interact, but also schooling.

Emergent Themes

Four broad themes emerged from this study to be important in influencing educational achievement and literacy. These included the conflicting time orientation of the low-income families, a cultural mismatch between the teachers and students, the importance of the social environment and the families as powerful conduits for facilitating literacy and the limitations in household resources to support educational pursuits. Each theme will now be highlighted.