Identity formation.

Research also points to a relationship between literacy and the formation of an identity (Cornes, 1994; Davies, Fitzpatrick, Grenco & Ivanik, 1994; Luke, 1995a). Identity is a phenomenon learned in a social context (Jarvis, 1992) and it has been acknowledged that learners replicate their cultures in forming an identity. The process is complicated and involves learning through action and interaction with others, while being socialized into the dominant culture. Families and schools are sites of cultural transmission where much informal learning occurs. The church, workplace and other community settings may also influence identity formation and cultural transmission.

Barer-Stein (1993) explains how much of what we label as one's own identity is actually cultural identity or the "myriad of involuntary attachments to customs, values, manners, beliefs and attitudes rooted in cultural soil and learned before we were aware that we were learning anything" (p. 151). She also describes how it is possible for an individual to belong to several cultural groups at the same time and how each group contributes to identity formation. Identity itself is therefore impressionable and unpredictable.

Negative stereotypes and expectations may serve to inhibit one's full participation in society. As Polakow (1993) explains, those from low-income backgrounds are consigned to a world of otherness right from birth. She states that society may hold negative stereotypes about the capabilities of those from low-income homes and this undoubtedly influences their self-efficacy or belief in their ability to carry out an activity. Further, identity also determines access to resources over space and time. Ultimately, these factors influence the formation of one's own identity. Women's identity may be bound with literacy in some cultures. For example, in a culture where men might be expected to be the provider for the family, the women's role with regard to literacy may be quite different from the men's.

Toohey (1996), in her study of second language learners, stresses the importance of recognizing the role of individual circumstances in forming skills and interests, as well as the learner's outlook. Davies et al (1994) point out the relationship between literacy, strength and identity. They claim that reading and writing have the potential to develop people's strength and identity or conversely to drain their strength and overwhelm their identity. Harker (1990) states that with great effort, it is possible to take on an identity that defines greater possibilities for learning than might otherwise be available.