Reading Level 7-8

As we have seen, a neutron star would be small and dense. It should also be rotating rapidly. All stars rotate, but most of them do so leisurely. For example, our Sun takes nearly one month to rotate around its axis. A collapsing star speeds up as its size shrinks, just as an ice-skater during a pirouette speeds up when she pulls in her arms. This phenomenon is a direct consequence of a law of physics known as the conservation of angular momentum, which holds that the total amount of angular momentum in a system holds constant. An ordinary star rotating once a month would be spinning faster than once a second if compressed to the size of a neutron star.

In addition to having rapid rotation, we expect a neutron star to have an intense magnetic field. It is probably safe to say that every star has a magnetic field of some strength.

- From Discovering the Universe (Faufmann 1990, p. 290)

Producing and transforming text

While the formulas were originally created to help educators select texts for different audiences, writers also use the formula variables to produce texts and transform (re-write) them into simpler versions. The evidence on how effective this is has been mixed. As both the supporters of the formulas and their critics have warned, if you just chop up sentences and use shorter words, the results are not likely to improve comprehension. You have to look at the many other factors that affect reading at the level for which you are writing.

Early evidence on the effects of using the formula variables to transform text was negative. Klare (1963) reported that, of the six readability studies involving the controlled manipulation of words or sentences, only one had a positive effect, and this involved simplifying vocabulary.

In a later study, Klare (1976) took a careful look at 36 studies that examined the effects on comprehension of using the readability formula variables in re-writing texts. He grouped them by their results:

• 19 studies had positive results (readability variables had a significant effect on comprehension and/or retention)
• 6 studies had mixed results
• 11 studies had negative results (no measurable effect).

In seeking the reasons for the differences, Klare looked carefully at 28 situational factors in which each experiment was conducted. The situational factors fell into these groups:

• The readability and content of the material.
• The competence and motivation of the subjects.
• The instructions given the subjects during the experiment.
• The details of the test situation.

Klare found that differences in readability were often overridden by other factors in the test situation such as:

• The instruction given to the subjects of the test.
• The presence of threats or rewards.
• The time allowed for reading and testing.
• The presence or absence of the text during the test.

Klare wrote that the performance of the subject in such tests is a function not only of the difficulty of the material, but also in critical degrees, a function of the test situation (time, place, etc.), the content of the material and the competence and motivation of the reader. Scores will be better, for instance, when the readers love the subject matter or if they are highly motivated (e.g., paid).