The factors explaining the persistence of low educational attainment and illiteracy in Canada can be divided into several categories. First, there are historical factors, such as the slow development of schools and compulsory attendance laws and enforcement of these laws in some. areas of Canada, particularly hinterland regions. Another is the fact that many of the adult immigrants to Canada have been illiterate in the English language and often in their native tongues as well. A second category of factors has to do with attitudes and values. Here we may refer to the low estimation on the part of economic and political elites of the need and importance of education for the working class and independent commodity producers, such as farmers. A third category is institutional factors, including the phenomena of poor schools, inadequately trained teachers, and inadequate and class biased curricula and methods. Finally, we may refer to a fourth category, family and personal factors. These include the need of some families to keep children home in productive labour, the non-attendance of some children due to illness, and the personal learning problems of others

As was argued in the previous chapter, illiteracy is closely related to uneven development at the regional and class levels. what unites the above factors, despite their diversity, is the fact that they have systematically and disproportionately affected members of subordinate social classes, including unemployed, seasonally employed or otherwise underemployed members of the blue collar working class, and impoverished independent commodity producers among petty bourgeoisie, especially fishermen and farmers. Illiteracy rates have historically been highest among these classes and the bulk of illiteracy has been and continues to be located among their ranks. This is not to suggest that illiteracy does not occur among dominant classes, e.g. among small businessmen and professionals (i.e. independent petty bourgeoisie) or the capitalist class, only that it has been a relatively rare phenomenon and is better understood as an element of an individual life history that as part of a similar broad sociological pattern. 12

Because of their preponderantly subordinate class status, illiterate adults have since the 1850's normally lacked both a collective voice through which to articulate their problems and needs --including educational ones like illiteracy--and access to a political movement capable of forcing the larger society to act on them. This goes a long way toward explaining why a "second chance" to learn basic literacy skills has not been recognized as a right in Canada, and has not been institutionalized in the manner of childhood education. Instead, the provision of literacy instruction has been intermittent and never adequate.