In view of the dubious record of programs such as manpower training and academic upgrading in the U.S. and Canada, various social scientists have argued that the liberal "remediation" strategy for reducing poverty is a failure. 66 At a more basic level, in view of the crisis situation in North American economies, the entire liberal doctrine which helped to inaugurate and sustain the post-World War II welfare state has come under increasing challenge. Bowles and Gintis argue:

The disappointing results of the War on Poverty and, in a larger sense, the persistence of poverty and discrimination in the United states have decisively discredited liberal social theory .... 67

As for the situation in Canada, Paul Gingrich asserts that:

the liberal, neocapitalist ideology while not dead, is under attack on all sides. With this ideology discredited by the events of the 1970's, the critiques of both left and right gain increasing support 68

In the following chapters, we will examine these critiques, as embodied in conservative and critical (socialist and Marxist) thought, particularly focussing on the explanations put forward for the apparent failure of the liberal "remediation" strategy, and the proposals for alternative perspectives on poverty and illiteracy. Let us begin with the conservative position, first as it has developed in the United States, and then as it has emerged in Canada.