Reinforcing Barriers

However, even if the labour movement was not responsible for the creation of a divided labour market, union practices have had some influence in reinforcing the barriers between en the primary and secondary markets. That is, while unions have won concessions like improved pay, benefits, working conditions, job-security, opportunities for promotion, etc. through hard and bitter struggle, as the history of the union movement in Canada attests, in the course of winning and preserving these gains unions have established a variety of practices and policies, some of which work to the disadvantage of secondary labour market employees seeking entry into the primary labour market. For example, a minority of unionized workers in Canada belong to craft unions. They derive their power vis a vis employers by restricting entry into particular occupations, e.g. construction trades, and have won "closed shop" agreements which oblige employers to hire only union members. Sometimes the requirements for entry into these unions are highly restrictive, and work against low-Income applicants. These include high initiation fees, high educational standards, or steep qualifications for entry into apprenticeship programs. 51 Where such unions maintain hiring halls, some of their policies may be overtly discriminatory against members of particular minority groups. 52

Most unionized workers in Canada. belong to industrial unions, which have no such influence in hiring decisions. However, some of their policies may also work against the interests of secondary workers. For example, seniority provisions in union contracts tend to protect longer-term employees at the expense of those who are newly hired, often including groups like minorities and women.

Although there are significant exceptions, established unions have been reluctant to tackle what promises to be a long, difficult and expensive task---the building of unions among unorganized workers--particularly in sectors employing large numbers of minorities and women.53 In addition, where unions have already been organized among them, the leadership may not be favorable to their interests. For example, Laxer points out:

Unions themselves have often been guilty of superior attitudes. Even in locals made up largely or even predominantly of immigrants. they have often had little voice, and union leaders in immigrant-dominated industries--particularly in the building trades craft unions--are often English-speaking and native-born.54