Houle, C.O. (1996). The design of education (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Houle expands upon Tyler’s model and modifies it specifically for adult education. Such adult education settings are influenced by the power of program administrators and those enrolled in the programs, rather than by the program subject or methods employed. Adult learners may come from factories, communities, as well as conventional education institutions. This planning framework consists of seven components, such as making a decision to proceed, designing a suitable format, and putting a plan into effect.

Kidd, R. (1973). How adults learn. New York: Association Press.

This programming model is learner centred and analytic in terms of curriculum development, making it unlike those described herein. Curriculum development is based on Tyler (1949), who employs “screens” to determine educational and learning objectives. Several programming stages are examined, such as identifying learners’ needs, engaging the learner, and the final stage that poses the important question, “How much change and growth has there been?” A standard quantitative methodology is implemented in the process of answering this salient question.

Knowles, M.S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Pedagogy vs. andragogy. New York: Association Press.

Knowles’ programming model derives from his own andragogical philosophy that assumes adults proceed toward self-direction and use their experience and self-evaluation. A needs diagnosis is carried out, for example, using interviews and surveys at individual, organizational, and community levels. The potential objectives that result are separated into educational and operational categories, and then screened using the three “filters” of institutional philosophy, feasibility, and individual interest. The needs that remain are the program objectives. The next step is comprehensive program operation, or managing what has been planned. Evaluation is addressed in terms of behavioural change and self-development.