Definition of Terms

• Phonetics: the ability to understand sounds and blending of sounds
• Morphology: the stringing together of sounds to make meaningful units of language i.e. prefixes, suffixes, word endings that describe numbers (dog versus dogs) and tense
• Syntax: the rules used to form a sentence ranging from simple to complex

Fluency

Can learners read their own writing fluently or do they have trouble due to a number of syntax and morphology errors?

Content (structure, cohesion)

Learners' writings may reveal poor organization and lack a clear purpose for writing. For example, they may not communicate a clear message, they may express thoughts that don't contribute to the main idea and omit critical parts or put information in the wrong place. Overall the writing is disorganized.

Conventions (readability: spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar and legible handwriting)

Both visual and auditory disabilities can impact the conventions in learners' expressive writing. Practitioners need to review a number of writing samples to help reveal consistent patterns in convention errors. Quite often learners may struggle with rewriting and editing because they may not see their errors.

Writing sample difficulties:

• Writes letters or numbers backwards or upside down (reverse of b and d, p for q, u for n, m for w)
• Uses a mix of writing and printing
• Exhibits poor handwriting; letter formation is inconsistent and letters are poorly formed
• Uses incorrect homonyms
• Uses a mix of capital and small letters or omits letters (SunDay, MoNey)
• Uses a fair amount of cross outs and write overs to correct errors
• Punctuation errors are common³⁷