From the standpoint of developing a measure of teamwork for ALL, the research on culture has two important implications. First, although it seems safe to conclude that the core dimensions of teamwork (see Figure 1) generalize to most countries, it also seems likely that the way in which these skills are manifested will vary by nation. For example, communication will be central to teamwork regardless of culture, but team members from different countries may employ somewhat different communication strategies. In an attempt to address this issue, we tried to identify behaviors representing each of the core teamwork skills that were least likely to vary. However, the extent to which we achieved this goal will only be known after testing the teamwork measure in several different countries. Second, because effective teamwork behaviors likely vary across countries, it may not be possible to construct teamwork items with one "correct" answer. What is considered appropriate team behavior in one country may not be considered appropriate in another. Therefore, our items will attempt to capture information about respondents' knowledge of teamwork across the countries participating in ALL. Norms on these measures will be produced for each country, thereby providing a wealth of information on the nature of teamwork within a country. To the extent that teamwork is manifested differently from culture to culture, cross-cultural comparisons will be neither possible nor appropriate. With these issues in mind, we now turn to a discussion of ALL teamwork measures.

4.3 ALL teamwork measures

The previous sections of this framework have presented our definition of a team and have delineated the core knowledge, skills and attitudes that are associated with effective teamwork (see Figure 1). We have tried to identify individual-level competencies that are generalizable, although we recognize that culture may play a significant role in how individuals express these competencies while functioning in a team.

This section of the framework describes our strategies for assessing teamwork. We first present a series of theoretical and practical assumptions that will guide item development. We present these assumptions here because they have significantly influenced our measurement approach.

4.3.1 Theoretical assumptions

There are four distinguishing features of a team (two or more individuals; a shared or common goal; task interdependence; and a desired productive outcome).

There are generic team competencies held at the individual level that we believe can be measured.

The competencies defined in this framework represent key elements of teamwork that should be measured.

The competencies defined in this framework are critical for successful teamwork. Attitudes toward teamwork and knowledge of teamwork skills directly affect teamwork.

There are cultural differences associated with teamwork. All cultures will be familiar with the notion of teams, and the competencies reflected in the framework are likely to be common to all cultures. However, these competencies are not necessarily expressed in the same way.