5.1 A demand-oriented approach to competence: the ability to meet complex demands

The definition of key competence is based on a competence model that is holistic and dynamic in the sense that it integrates and relates demands, psychosocial prerequisites, and context as essential elements of competent performance.

Put differently, a competence is defined as the ability to successfully meet complex demands in a particular context through the mobilization of knowledge, cognitive skills but also practical skills, as well as social and behaviour components such as attitudes, emotions, and values and motivations. This holistic apprehension is supported by recent findings from neuroscience, namely, "that reasoning and emotion are vitally connected" (Gonczi, 2003).

To illustrate, the ALL framework defines the competence "numeracy" as involving not only the enabling knowledge and specific cognitive skills required to manage the mathematical demands of diverse situations effectively, but also encompasses the activation of a range of behaviours and processes (Gal, Tout, van Groenstijn, Schmidt, and Manley, 1999).

A competence is therefore not reducible to its cognitive dimension, and thus the terms competence and skill are not synonymous. While the term competence designates a complex action system encompassing cognitive and non-cognitive components, the term skill is mostly used in relation to cognitive or practical abilities.

5.2 Reflectivity - the required level of competence

Today, in most OECD countries, value is placed on entrepreneurship and personal responsibility. Adults are expected to be flexible, adaptive, innovative, creative, selfdirected, self-motivated, and to take responsibility for their decisions and actions as learners, workers, citizens, family members, or consumers.

There is a broad consensus among scholars and experts that recalling accumulated knowledge, abstract thinking, and being well-socialized are necessary but insufficient psychosocial conditions for coping with many of the demands of modern life.

Dealing flexibly with novelty, change, and diversity and coping in a responsible way with many of today's challenges require the development of a higher level of mental complexity that implies critical thinking, creative abilities and a reflective practice (including metacognition).

The notion of reflectivity (though various terms are used) is like a leading thread throughout the various contributions from scholars and experts (see in particular, Kegan; Canto-Sperber and Dupuy, 2001; Perrenoud, 2001; Haste, 2001; Callieri, 2001). Reflectivity is retained as an important transversal feature of key competencies (Rychen, 2003).