Participants in formal educational activities are more likely to be those with higher educational attainment (Benn, 1997; OECD, 2002) – the likelihood of participating increases with level attained (Hart et al., 2002); and those between 18 and 50 years of age (OECD, 2002). Individuals from professional/managerial families are three times more likely to obtain post-secondary degrees than those from working class origins (Livingstone & et al., 2002); and those between 18 and 50 years of age (OECD, 2002). Individuals from professional/managerial families are three times more likely to obtain post-secondary degrees than those from working class origins (Livingstone & Stowe, 2001). Non-participants are more likely to be members of racial or ethnic minorities, those with low literacy and foundation skills (Hart et al., 2002; Statistics Canada/OECD, 2005), those with low incomes (ABC Canada, 2002; OECD, 2002), those over 50 years (Carlton & Soulsby, 1999), and those with physical, sensory or learning disabilities (Reynolds, 2002). Stowe, 2001). Non-participants are more likely to be members of racial or ethnic minorities, those with low literacy and foundation skills (Hart et al., 2002; Statistics Canada/OECD, 2005), those with low incomes (ABC Canada, 2002; OECD, 2002), those over 50 years (Carlton & Soulsby, 1999), and those with physical, sensory or learning disabilities (Reynolds, 2002).

Gorard and Selwyn (2005) suggest that patterns of participation in formal education are set early in life through such key variables as age, ethnicity, gender, initial schooling, and the literacy culture of the family (OECD, 2002). They go on to suggest that learners who, early in life, create a learner identity for themselves inimical to further study are unlikely to participate in formal educational activities beyond compulsory schooling. The nature of an individual's learner identity may explain more about non-participation than the various barriers that are routinely describe in the literature. The OECD background report on the state of adult learning in Canada (OECD, 2003) indicates that 63% of adults do not participate in formal learning activities; and of these persons, only about 20% have plans for future participation (Hart et al., 2002).

The literature, taken as a whole, focuses on non-participation as a problem that can somehow be corrected if we could just eliminate barriers or design educational programs that would entice and encourage participation or if individual non-participants would only become more motivated. Stalker (1997) argues that situational and dispositional barriers to participation are both perceived in Cross' model as the fault of the learner.

These two barriers implicitly assume that potential learners are responsible for their own non-participation and that the non-participant is somehow inferior to the participant, with less desire or motivation to overcome barriers. The third problem with this classic model lies in its tendency to give little consideration to the impact of macro-level factors. Cross does not make clear connections to the macro-level social, economic, political and cultural contexts which form barriers to participation.... [These contexts] are experienced on a day- to-day basis in ways which foster or inhibit participation in adult education (Stalker, 1997, p.1).

In terms of women's participation in adult education, important macro-level barriers are described by Stalker as including patriarchy, androcentricity, sexism or sex discrimination, and hostility toward women or misogyny. Her analysis of the barriers to participation experienced by women suggests that adult educators should turn their attention to doing a critical analysis of the barriers experienced not only by women, but also by other non-participating and learning-poor groups.

Successive governments have tied participation in adult education and training to economic policy, and non-participants may be required to participate if they seek government financial support. In assessing the adequacy of education and training, Baran, Berube, Roy and Salmon, (2000) argue that increasing knowledge about barriers must be viewed as a complementary strategy to estimating the rate of return on investments in education and training; and that such knowledge is essential in the design of policy actions toward the pursuit of equity goals.