Two brief anecdotes help explain why more study is needed on the interaction of various factors that create barriers to participation:

• One young woman of our acquaintance, a single mother on social assistance, was accepted into a university program to begin in January. The social assistance worker told her that she must complete the GED before she could be considered eligible for tuition assistance. She could not write the GED until February. But she had to pay her fees in January or risk being de-registered from all her courses and no longer have access to the library and computer resources essential to her learning program.
• Another young mother on social assistance found she had to stay home with a sick child. In order to attend the audio conferenced class, the educational institution arranged for her to call in from home but charged her a $25 fee to hook up to the conference bridge.

Barriers to participation in educational activities are similar for all groups of learners, with a few variations on the main themes for specific groups of learners.

3.2.1 Situational barriers

Situational barriers occur because of circumstances learners encounter in their current life situations. For example, role conflict and role strain are situational barriers that are frequently reported among women who are working, raising a family, and studying part- or full-time (Home, 2004; Home & Hinds, 2000). Role conflict and role strain can be viewed as major factors contributing to the learner's level of distress, a situational barrier that might keep potential participants from enrolling, or once enrolled, from successfully completing a learning program. Any set of circumstances that causes distress for the individual would contribute to situational barriers.

The situational barriers reported in the literature are:

• Multiple conflicting responsibilities for home, family, children, and work (ABC Canada, 2002; Archibald & Urion, 1995; Cumming, 1992; Dench & Regan, 2000; Hart et al., 2002; Home, 2004; Home & Hinds, 2002; Livingstone, 2002; McGivney, 1999; OECD, 2002).
• Financial problems (ABC Canada, 2002; Archibald & Urion, 1995; Cumming, 1992; Gaikezheyongai, 2000; Hart et al., 2002; Livingstone, 2002; McGivney, 1999; OECD, 2002; Ostermeier, 2003; Potter & Ferguson, 2003).
• Lack of adequate, appropriate and affordable childcare services (Cumming, 1992; Gaikezheyongai, 2000; McGivney, 1999; OECD, 2002).
• Scarcity of time (Dench & Regan, 2000; Lowe, 2001; OECD, 2002; Ostermeier, 2003).
• Job commitments (Cumming, 1992), conflict with paid employment (Hart et al., 2002).
• Transportation problems (Cumming, 1992), distance to be travelled to attend (Hart et al., 2002; Millar & Falk, 2000; Ostermeier, 2003; Reynolds, 2002).
• Being mobility disabled (Dench & Regan, 2000).
• Having a learning disability (ERIC Clearinghouse, 2000).
• Communication problems caused by poor hearing or vision (Dench & Regan, 2000; Grognet, 1997).
• Being in poor mental or physical health or having limited energy (Dench & Regan, 2000; Grognet, 1997).
• Lack of support from spouse, family members or employers (Furst-Bowe & Dillman, 2002)
• Lack of interest (Dench & Regan, 2000; Hart et al., 2002).