Questions are raised in the literature about how we can distinguish between formal learning and informal learning, and between intentional informal learning and incidental informal learning (Livingstone, 1999; OECD, 2002). Livingstone (2002) provides an extensive discussion about the definition of informal learning. Learners and educational providers have different perceptions about what constitutes learning. Research on the differences among these three types of learning would assist educators to develop clear definitions that could be used by all stakeholders involved in providing learning opportunities for adults.

This type of knowledge gap exists for many other terms: community-based learning, service-based learning, lifelong learning, the internationalization of educational activities, learning outcomes, learning competencies, learning communities. We need to develop a common understanding of all these terms.

Potential lines of inquiry:

• A study using the Delphi technique, to establish parameters that will allow us to distinguish between formal and informal learning, and between intentional and incidental informal learning.
• Similar studies in relation to other learning-related terms such as: community-based learning, service-learning, learning communities, and lifelong learning.
• Similar studies in relation to terms used to describe aspects of learning opportunities such as: learning outcomes and learning competencies.

4.3 Knowledge about the potential role of formal educational institutions in supporting and recognizing informal learning activities.

By definition, formal educational institutions have no role to play in providing informal learning activities; but they do have a role to play in supporting such activities and in recognizing the resulting knowledge and skills. The experience of the Prior Learning Assessment Centre of Nova Scotia would help educators in formal institutions understand how recognition for informal learning could be accomplished at a system-wide level.

Potential lines of inquiry:

• Preparation of case studies of the experience of the PLA Centre of NS and other centres to assist administrators in formal educational systems develop sound strategies for recognizing prior learning.

4.4 Knowledge about the interaction among various types of barriers

Fagan (1991), a literacy educator in St. John's, Newfoundland, suggests that choosing to participate or not in learning activities can be understood in terms of three sets of factors: learner-inherent factors (goals, capabilities); life factors (conditions and circumstances surrounding the individual such as information, transitions, barriers); and program factors or the nature of the educational programs available to the individual (organization, content, procedures, personnel). Fagan points out that it is not enough to understand these factors separately; learners, instructors and administrators must understand the factors in terms of their interactions with each other. The same point could be made about learners from a variety of marginal groups as they try to access learning opportunities.

Potential lines of inquiry:

• A series of ongoing studies to examine the interactions among various types of barriers for different groups of adult learners.